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Clinical Neurology represents a specialized field within neuroscience that delves into the systematic examination of the fundamental mechanisms underlying primary diseases and the overall state of the brain and central nervous system (CNS). Its primary objective is to pioneer inventive approaches for visualizing and identifying these diseases, culminating in the creation of novel treatments.
Translational Neurology is a specialized field that harnesses the findings of neuroscience research to advance and transform into clinical applications and pioneering therapies for disorders of the nervous system. This discipline encompasses diverse areas such as deep brain stimulation, neurorehabilitation, brain-machine interfaces, and the development of devices for the sensory nervous system, including auditory implants, retinal implants, and electronic skins.
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Alzheimer's disease is a progressive condition that undermines memory and other crucial cognitive functions. The connections between brain cells and the cells themselves undergo degeneration and eventual demise, ultimately leading to the destruction of memory and other essential mental capacities. It stands as the most prevalent cause of dementia among elderly adults.
Dementia comprises a collection of cognitive and behavioral symptoms that impede daily functioning. This group of conditions is characterized by the decline of at least two brain functions, such as memory and judgment. Common manifestations include forgetfulness, impaired social skills, and diminished thinking abilities that significantly interfere with everyday activities.
Parkinson's disease is a progressive disorder that affects the nervous system and the bodily functions controlled by nerves. Symptoms typically emerge gradually, with an initial and often easily noticeable tremor in one hand. While tremors are a common manifestation, this condition can also lead to stiffness or a reduction in overall movement.
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Pediatric neurology is a specialized branch of medicine dedicated to the identification and management of neurological conditions in newborns, infants, children, and teenagers. This field encompasses a wide range of diseases and conditions that impact various components of the nervous system, including the spinal cord, brain, peripheral nervous system, muscles, autonomic nervous system, and blood vessels affecting individuals in their formative years.
Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that disrupts normal brain activity, leading to seizures or episodes of unusual movements, sensations, and sometimes a loss of awareness. It can develop in anyone, affecting both men and women of all ages.
Autism spectrum disorders
Child Development
Intellectual disability
Premature Birth
Tourette Syndrome (TS)
Childhood epilepsy
Genetic diseases of the nervous system
Hydrocephalus
Cerebral palsy (CP)
Brain and nervous system problems
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Molecular neuroscience is a division of neuroscience that investigates the biology of the nervous system by employing molecular biology, protein chemistry, molecular genetics, and associated methodologies.
Neurodegeneration is a compound term combining "neuro," relating to nerve cells, and "degeneration," signifying progressive damage. It is a term used to describe various conditions that lead to the gradual loss of structure and function of nerves.
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The concept of the birth of new neural cells, known as neurogenesis, was initially thought to be confined to the developing nervous system. It was widely accepted that a stable neuronal population in the adult brain was essential to maintain the functional stability of adult brain circuitry. However, recent studies have demonstrated that neurogenesis indeed persists throughout adult life in various regions of the central nervous system (CNS) in all mammals, including humans.
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Neuroimmunology is an interdisciplinary field that merges neuroscience, focusing on the study of the nervous system, with immunology, dedicated to understanding the immune system. Neuroimmunologists aim to enhance our comprehension of the intricate interactions between these two systems throughout development, homeostasis, and responses to injuries.
Neurological infections encompass a diverse range of conditions that invade and impact the nervous system. Despite progress in treatment and the advent of early detection methods, many of these conditions can lead to severe, persistent, and even life-threatening issues for those afflicted. Among the most prevalent neurological infections are encephalitis, characterized by inflammation of the brain caused by either bacteria or infection, and meningitis, marked by inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, also attributable to either bacterial or viral sources.
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The term "traumatic injuries of the central nervous system" (CNS) encompasses both traumatic brain injuries (TBI) and spinal cord injuries (SCI). Both types of injuries play a significant role in morbidity and mortality rates in both developed and developing countries. Traumatic brain injuries often occur due to severe sports injuries or auto accidents. Immediate or delayed symptoms may include confusion, blurred vision, and difficulty concentrating. In infants, persistent crying or irritability may be observed. Treatment may involve a combination of rest, medication, and, in some cases, surgical intervention.
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Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a type of acquired brain injury, occurs when an unforeseen trauma inflicts damage on the brain. TBI can result from the head abruptly and forcefully striking an object or when an object penetrates the skull and enters brain tissue. The symptoms of TBI can range from mild to severe, depending on the extent of the brain damage. Individuals with a mild TBI may remain conscious or experience a brief loss of consciousness for several seconds or minutes. TBI is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally, maintaining its status as a primary cause of death and disability among adolescents in developed countries
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Genetics examines how variations in the cell or host arise from DNA sequences, while "epigenetics" concentrates on the regulation of DNA to bring about those changes. Neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Prion disease, and others are significantly influenced by environmental factors, impacting alterations in the epigenome. The investigations related to epigenetics in neurons are referred to as neuroepigenetics.
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A brain tumor, also referred to as an intracranial tumor, is an abnormal mass of tissue where cells proliferate and multiply uncontrollably, potentially evading the regulatory mechanisms typical of normal cells. There are two main categories of brain tumors: primary and metastatic.
Primary brain tumors originate from the tissues of the brain or its immediate surroundings. These primary tumors are classified as either glial (composed of glial cells) or non-glial, and they can be benign or malignant.
On the other hand, metastatic brain tumors develop elsewhere in the body (such as in the bones or lungs) and migrate to the brain, typically through the bloodstream. Metastatic tumors are considered cancerous and are malignant. Various types of metastatic brain tumors exist, each with its distinctive characteristics.
Intracranial Metastasis
Skull Metastasis
Spinal Metastasis
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Neuro-ophthalmology is a specialized field that integrates knowledge from both neurology and ophthalmology, often addressing intricate systemic conditions with manifestations in the visual system. Neuro-ophthalmologists typically undergo training in either neurology or ophthalmology and pursue a fellowship in the complementary field. Given that individual presentations can be diverse in cases involving significant neuro-ophthalmic disease, a comprehensive medical history and physical examination are crucial. Neuro-ophthalmologists often dedicate a substantial amount of time to thoroughly assess and interact with their patients
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Neuromuscular disorders impact the functioning of muscles, arising from issues with nerves and muscles in the body. The primary and often recognizable symptom of these disorders is muscle weakness. Neurons play a crucial role in transmitting electrical signals to and from the body, facilitating the control of voluntary muscles. When neurons become compromised or cease to function, the communication between the nervous system and muscles breaks down. Mayo Clinic neurologists conduct thorough assessments of these diseases, employing electrodiagnostic studies and other relevant tests. Conditions and symptoms associated with neuromuscular diseases include...
Lambert-Eaton Syndrome
Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)
Myasthenia Gravis (MG)
Myopathies
Muscular Dystrophies
Peripheral Neuropathies
Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease
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Maintaining adequate cerebral blood flow (CBF) and metabolism is crucial to ensure proper brain perfusion, providing the brain with essential oxygen and energy substrates. Adequate brain perfusion is essential for sustaining normal brain function, facilitating successful aging, and navigating both acute and chronic medical conditions. This review explores the fundamental principles of CBF measurements and current techniques for assessing CBF. These methods include direct intravascular measures, nuclear medicine, X-ray imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound techniques, thermal diffusivity, and optical approaches
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Neuropharmacology is the field dedicated to understanding how drugs influence cellular function within the nervous system and the neural mechanisms by which they impact behavior. This discipline comprises two primary branches: behavioral and molecular neuropharmacology. Behavioral neuropharmacology explores the effects of drugs on human behavior, while molecular neuropharmacology delves into the study of neurons and their neurochemical interactions.
In parallel, neurochemistry focuses on investigating chemicals, including neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that regulate and influence the physiology of the nervous system.
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Artificial intelligence is increasingly proving to be a valuable tool in the realm of neuroscience, contributing to our comprehension of how the human brain functions and propelling advancements in neuroscience. Throughout the history of artificial intelligence, neuroscience has played a pivotal role, serving as a blueprint for developing human-like AI. Neuroscience provides inspiration for enhancing AI systems in two primary ways: by creating neural networks that mimic brain structure and by emulating human intelligence. The continual improvement of processors and the escalating availability of extensive training data have significantly contributed to the success of AI. The progress in artificial intelligence stands poised to further the development of neuroscience, aiding in unraveling the intricacies of the human brain. This synergy enables neuroscientists and researchers to construct more precise models of the human brain.
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Geriatric psychiatry, or geropsychiatry, is a specialized branch of medicine and a subspecialty within psychiatry that focuses on the examination, prevention, and treatment of neurodegenerative, cognitive impairment, and psychological disorders in individuals of advanced age. This field of Geriatric Neurology poses unique challenges in caring for the elderly population, requiring an understanding of the various changes occurring in multiple contexts to optimize their healthcare
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Neurological disorders are clinically identified as conditions that impact the brain, the nerves distributed throughout the body, and the spinal cord. Structural, biochemical, or electrical irregularities in these neural structures can manifest in a variety of symptoms.
Stroke stands as a significant contributor to global disability, yet its neurological impact has historically been underestimated, primarily because the World Health Organization (WHO) categorized it differently. However, with the latest update to the WHO International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), stroke has been rightfully reclassified as a neurological disorder. Vascular neurology specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of strokes and factors that contribute to stroke risk. Seeking the expertise of a vascular neurologist is crucial during or after a stroke, or if you are at risk of experiencing one.
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Cognitive neuroscience is a scientific discipline dedicated to investigating the inherent processes and elements that underpin cognition, placing particular emphasis on the neural connections within the brain engaged in internal processes. It delves into the inquiries surrounding how neural circuits in the brain influence or regulate cognitive functions. Positioned at the intersection of neuroscience and psychology, cognitive neuroscience intersects with disciplines such as behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology, and affective neuroscience. This field relies on concepts from cognitive science, supported by evidence from neurobiology and computational modeling
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Molecular psychology investigates the connection between behavior and the physical structures of the brain. Essentially, both molecular psychology and molecular psychiatry uncover how biology, genetics, and the brain's physical structures impact our behavior.
Emerging from the foundation of behavioral genetics, molecular psychology initially delved into the study of behavior in insects and animal subjects before extending its focus to humans. Behavioral genetics seeks to identify the hereditary factors contributing to various behavioral patterns. This area of research has unveiled how genetics influence psychological conditions and disorders
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An interdisciplinary field within behavioral neuroscience, this branch is also referred to as natural psychology, biopsychology, psychobiology, or neuroethology. Researchers in this domain investigate how the central nervous system transforms biologically relevant stimuli into innate behavior. Specializations within this field explore the ways in which the mechanisms of neurobiology regulate behavior, including aspects such as learning and memory.
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Molecular brain research is a rapidly advancing area of study that employs integrative approaches across genetic, molecular, cellular, and synaptic levels to provide vital insights into both the normal and pathological aspects of the brain. These investigations utilize a diverse array of cutting-edge techniques in molecular biology, genomics, proteomics, imaging, and electrophysiology
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A mental health disorder characterized by intense feelings of nervousness, anxiety, or fear that significantly disrupt daily activities. Examples of anxiety disorders encompass panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Symptoms involve disproportionate pressure in response to events, an inability to alleviate anxiety, and restlessness. Treatment options encompass counseling and medications, including antidepressants.
Sleep disorders, also known as sleep-wake disorders, involve disruptions in the quality, timing, and duration of sleep, leading to daytime distress and impaired functioning. These disorders often coexist with medical conditions or other mental health issues like depression, anxiety, or cognitive disorders. Various types of sleep-wake disorders exist, with insomnia being the most prevalent. Other sleep-wake disorders include obstructive sleep apnea, parasomnias, narcolepsy, and restless leg syndrome.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Specific phobias
Panic disorder
Clinical Depression
Anxiety Disorder
Attention deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Schizophrenia
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Central Nervous System Hypersomnia
Central Sleep Apnea
Circadian Rhythm Disorders
Fatal Familial Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Parasomnias
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Neuropsychology, a specialized field within psychology, explores the connection between an individual's cognition and behavior and their relationship to the brain and the broader nervous system. Practitioners in this discipline consistently focus on understanding how injuries or disorders of the brain impact cognitive and behavioral functions.
Addiction, identified as a neuropsychological disorder, is marked by a persistent and intense compulsion to engage in specific activities, often involving the use of a substance, despite significant harm and adverse consequences. Repetitive drug use consistently alters brain function, reinforcing cravings, and undermining self-control
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This medical field is dedicated to the diagnosis and treatment of individuals with injuries, disorders, or conditions affecting the brain, spinal cord, spinal column, and peripheral nerves throughout the entire body. Neurosurgical care within this realm encompasses both adult and pediatric patients.
Brain Tumor Center
Skull Base Surgery
Cranial Nerve Disorders
Functional and Restorative Neurosurgery
Neurovascular Surgery
Neurotrauma
Pediatric Neurosurgery
Peripheral Nerve Disorders
Neuroendocrine Disease and Pituitary disorders
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The exploration of the nervous system and the functioning of the brain falls under the domain of Neurobiology. This field delves into the functions of the nervous system, brain function, and associated structures such as the spinal cord. Neurobiology is an amalgamation of both physiology and neuroscience
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Neurogenetics examines the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. This field regards neural characteristics as phenotypes and is grounded in the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even those within the same species, may exhibit differences
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Computational neuroscience is a subdivision of neuroscience that utilizes intricate models, computer simulations, theoretical analyses, and abstractions of the brain to comprehend the principles governing the evolution, structure, physiology, and cognitive abilities of the nervous system.
In Neuroinformatics, the focus is on scrutinizing how the brain processes information. A crucial objective is to discern why, unlike external computer systems, the brain exhibits remarkable health and adaptability. These insights are essential for developing more advanced hardware and software in the future.
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All forms of neuroimaging fall under the umbrella of brain mapping. Brain mapping can be viewed as an advanced iteration of neuroimaging, generating brain images enhanced by the outcomes of recent data processing or analysis, whether through imaging or non-imaging methods, akin to charts projecting measures of behavior onto specific brain regions.
Neuroimaging divides in 2 main categories:
Structural imaging is employed for examining the composition of the nervous system and diagnosing large-scale intracranial disorders and injuries.
Functional imaging is utilized to diagnose metabolic diseases and pinpoint lesions on a more detailed scale, especially in conditions like Alzheimer's disease. Additionally, it plays a vital role in neurological and cognitive psychology research and in the development of brain-computer interfaces.
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Brain pathology refers to any disorder, disease, or pathological condition that impacts the brain, such as tumors, strokes, or traumatic injuries. A brain tumor can originate in the brain cells or originate elsewhere and spread to the brain. As the tumor enlarges, it exerts pressure on and alters the function of surrounding brain tissue, resulting in symptoms such as headaches, nausea, and issues with balance.
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Brain imaging involves the examination of the structure or activity of the brain throughout the entire cranium using noninvasive computerized methods, such as magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. It also includes nuclear imaging.
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Neuroeconomics is an interdisciplinary field that aims to elucidate human decision-making, encompassing the ability to assess various options and execute a course of action. It delves into how economic behaviors can inform our comprehension of the brain and how neuroscientific insights can inform economic models.
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